Germany
(Europe)

Germany was unhappy with the sanctions imposed on the country after its defeat in World War I. That plus the economic upheaval created by the Great Depression paved the way for the rise of the Nazi Party.

Adolf Hitler, the party’s leader, became chancellor of Germany in 1933 and began implementing policies based on racial ideology.

Jews were the primary target of racial laws. This turned them into second-class citizens who could not work in most professions. They could not walk on the streets after certain hours, and their property could be taken without cause. This created a refugee crisis. When other countries refused to take in this Jewish population, it enabled the Nazis to carry on their racist program.

1935 newspaper clipping on increasing laws and restrictions on Jewish economic life, specifically in banking and finance.

Jewish girls sitting at their desks in school set up after they were driven from their former classrooms

Jewish girls sitting at their desks in a school set up after they were driven from their former classrooms. Circa 1939.

Aftermath of World War I

Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, the country was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919, or risk invasion. The treaty imposed severe terms on Germany. The country had to accept responsibility for the war, make reparation payments, limit its military to 100,000 troops, and transfer territories to its neighbors. This led to great political discontent in the country.

Nazi Party Ascension

Germany was hit very hard by the Great Depression in the early 1930s. Over 6 million people were unemployed by June 1932. Two factors contributed to the meteoric rise in support for the Nazi party. First, people were dealing with the distress of the country’s economy. Second, Adolf Hitler – who was the leader of the extreme right-wing Nazi party – promised to reverse the losses from the Treaty of Versailles. During the elections of July 1932, the Nazi party became the largest group in the German parliament. Hitler attracted a wide following of Germans. People were desperate for a change and flocked to the promise of a better life and a glorious Germany. The Nazi party was particularly attractive to the unemployed, to young people, and to members of the lower middle class like farmers, small business owners, and office employees.

Hitler in power

In November of 1932 the Nazi party failed to gain a majority in the elections, losing two million votes. This encouraged some conservative politicians to form an alliance with Hitler. They believed that a weakened Nazi Party could be used as a tool that conservatives could use against the socialists and communists. After negotiations, German President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor of Germany in January 1933. German democracy came to an end. Hitler convinced his cabinet to use emergency clauses in the constitution that would suspend individual freedoms of the press, speech, and assembly. Leaders of opposition political parties such as socialists, communists, or liberals were murdered or arrested. The Enabling Act of March 23, 1933 gave Hitler dictatorial powers.

Racial Ideology, Antisemitism and Persecution of Jews

As early as 1933 the Nazis began to put into practice their racial ideology. They believed that Germans were the “superior race,” and that there was a struggle for survival between the Germanic peoples and what they felt were “inferior races.” The Germans considered Jews, Roma (Gypsies), some Slavic peoples, and black people to be inferior races. Also considered inferior were people with disabilities, homosexuals, Communists, socialists, and Jehovah’s witnesses. Jews were the primary target, identified as a race. Nazi propaganda blamed the Jews for the economic depression and the Germans' defeat in World War I.

The German census of 1933 tallied Jews at less than 1% of the total population (approximately 525,000 of 67 million). The Nuremberg Laws of September 1935 made Jews second-class citizens in Germany. Jews were forced out of government, university, and law court jobs. They were defined by the religious affiliation of their grandparents. That meant thousands of people who had converted to another religion were classified as Jews, even Catholic priests and nuns, and Protestant ministers. Between 1937 and 1939 Jewish segregation advanced even further: Jews could not study at public schools, walk in certain parts of German cities, or go to theaters, cinema, or vacation resorts. Jewish businesses and properties were either seized or Jews were forced to sell at extremely low prices.

Evian Conference

In June 1938 the Evian Conference was held in France (See France for more information on the conference) to address the issue of Jewish refugees. Delegates from 32 countries were participating. After the conference, the German government was pleased to make a point. It noted that though foreign governments had been criticizing the German government’s treatment of Jews, when "the opportunity was offered" to take in Jews, none of those countries opened their doors to Jewish immigrants. This failure by many governments to make a difference enabled Nazi Germans to carry on their racist program.

Kristallnacht

In March 1938 the Nazis marched into Austria and were welcomed by most with open arms. On November 9, 1938, the Nazis organized a nationwide pogrom called Kristallnacht, the “Night of Broken Glass.” The attack against German and Austrian Jews destroyed synagogues and Jewish businesses. Homes were vandalized. Jewish men were arrested, and some individuals were murdered. "Aryanization," the transfer of Jewish-owned businesses to "Aryans," accelerated following the pogrom. Yet even after Kristallnacht, other countries kept immigrant quotas in place and remained reluctant to accept refugees. The United States merged the Austrian and German quotas and for the first time ordered these joint quotas to be filled. Thus, immigration of German and Austrian Jews only reached an all-time high in 1939.